What is Adult
Ed.?
UNESCO (1976) - A
learning process in which adult learners are involved in unleashing their
potentials; upgrading their knowledge, attitude and practice; maximizing their
technical and professional skills; and opening the doors for them to be
involved in social and economic development. A planned educational process in
the non formal settings for adults (as an individual or group)
Adult education is a
process whereby persons whose major social roles are characteristic of adult
status undertake systematic and sustained learning activities for the purpose
of bringing about changes in knowledge, attitudes, values, or skills.
Darkenwald and Merriam (1982, p.9)
Other terms associated
with adult education: continuing education, lifelong education/ learning,
recurrent education, community education, andragogy, university extension, and
agricultural extension.
Adult education is
concerned not with preparing people for life, but rather with helping people to
live more successfully. Thus if there is to be an overarching function of the
adult education enterprise, it is to assist adults to increase competence, or
negotiate transitions, in their social roles (worker, parent, retiree etc.), to
help them gain greater fulfilment in their personal lives, and to assist them
in solving personal and community problems. (Darkenwald and Merriam 1982: 9)
Most current texts seem
to approach adult education via the adult status of students, and a concern
with education (creating enlivening environments for learning). We could choose
a starting definition from a range of writers. Rather than muck around I have
taken one advanced by Sharan B. Merriam and Ralph G. Brockett (1997: 8). They
define adult education as:
“Activities
intentionally designed for the purpose of bringing about learning among those
whose age, social roles, or self-perception define them as adults.” This definition has the
virtue of side-stepping some of the issues around the meaning of ‘adult’ – but
doesn’t fully engage with the nature of education. However, it is a start.
Who
is Adult?
The psychological
definition: Someone who is self-sufficient and responsible for her or his own
decisions.
In
some culture, adult is define by:
Given freedom of choice
Ready to go hunting in
the thick jungle
When the girls can form
‘perfect’ dances
When moustache become
obvious
Rites of passage
Religion
perspectives:
Reach puberty. Eligible
to inherit property. As Witness during judgment. After undergoing through
specific ceremonies.
The first is an older
ideal of adulthood that dominated the Hollywood screen during the 1930s and
1940s: Someone who is worldly, sophisticated, knowing, and urbane. To be an
adult, in this view, was not to be staid, sedate, or stolid and sober. It
was to be like stylish, polished, and elegant. It was to be verbally
adroit: witty in an adult manner, through innuendo, understatement,
or humor that was caustic or mordant. The post-World War II definition: someone who
is married, has children, and, if male, supporting his family, and, if female,
caring for her family. In U.S, the age at which a person becomes an adult
varies from state to state and often varies within state, depending upon the
nature of the action taken by person:
Obtain a license
to operate a motor vehicle -16
Vote and serve in the
military – 18
Rent a car - 25
Purchasing intoxicating liquors
– 21
Marriage – 18
In Malaysia, According
to Undang-Undang Malaysia, Akta Umur Dewasa 1971, adult age was set at 18
However it is also
depending upon the nature of the action taken by person:
16 years - allow to
apply for motorcycle license
17 years - allow to
apply for car license
18 years – allow to
smoke, purchasing intoxicating liquor
18 years - can apply
international passport
18 years - entitle to make
bank loan
21 years - eligible to
vote
21 years - can own a
property
Definitions of
adulthood are often inconsistent and contradictory; a person may be
biologically an adult, and have adult behavior but still be treated
as a child if they are under the legal age of majority. A further issue is
the various meanings given to ‘adult’. We might approach the notion, for
example, as a:
Biological state
(post-puberty),
Legal state (aged 18 or
over; aged 21 or over?),
Psychological state
(their ‘self-concept’ is that of an ‘adult’)
Form of behavior
(adulthood as being in touch with one’s capacities whatever the context). Set of social roles
(adulthood as the performance of certain roles e.g. working, raising children
etc).
Different societies and
cultures will have contrasting understanding of what it is to be adult. ‘Adult’
can be set against ‘child’. In between adult and child (or more accurately,
overlapping) there may be an idea of ‘youth’. At base adults are older than
children and with this comes a set of expectations. They are not necessarily mature.
‘But they are supposed to be mature, and it is on this necessary supposition
that their adulthood justifiably rests’ (Paterson 1979: 13). Adults may be
regrouped into early adult, middle adult and late adult.
Objectives
of Adult Ed.
Provide second opportunity
for adults to follow the formal system of education (GED: high school dropout
(church), college and university). Provide technical education to adults who
missed the opportunities in earlier life (Community college, welding class,
pedicure etc). Provide continuing education for adults to strengthen their
present skills (leadership, communication short course, computer skills). Provide
opportunities for in-service training (at workplace). Provide opportunities to
resolve individual, family and community challenges (solving problem). Provide
opportunities to self-actualization in the context of the environment,
socialization, volunteerism and the like.
Importance
of Adult Ed.
Based on the context
and development of Adult Learning. Demographics - population gets older, adults
are better educated and there is more cultural and ethnic diversity. Economics
and Technological advancement:
Affluence society
Global economy
Shift to service and
information society
The implication here is
that there is an increasing demand for continuing professional education.
Scope
of Adult Ed.
Independent adult
education organization such as community-based agencies. Educational
institution (i.e: University & Community College). Quasi/ semi educational
organization such as museum and library, etc. Non-educational organization such
as business and industry, the armed forces
Adult
education vs Adult learning
Adult
Education:
Teaching of adults. Using
an organized formal or informal plan of education. Direct involvement of a
teacher
Adult
Learning:
A continuous part of
adult life. Primarily skills and knowledge for personally relevant situations. Without
a formal educational institution or teacher.
History
of Adult Education in Malaysia
In Malaysian context,
Adult education refers to learning opportunities that has been followed by
adult outside from formal schooling system. Non-formal learning among Malay in
Malaysia were recorded as early as 14th century through the dissemination of
Islam when the non-informal learning institution like mosque and surau were
built to operate the religious class. Therefore, non-formal learning activity
in community centered in prayer house like masjid and surau. Participation
model and earlier research proposed that participation were influenced by
socio-demographic and psychological factors. Post-independence: Around 60 and
70’s, most of the adult education program has been seen as literacy program and
medium to increase the standard of living upgrade among adult. The focus of
adult education in Malaysia has been changed to increase the knowledge and
upgrade the skills to generate income , solving problems and individual
development. Although at that time, Malaysia do not have the clear policy on
adult education, government has implemented various program and facilties like
rural library (perpustakaan desa), community centre (i.e: balai raya), and so
on to support the mutual goal – educate the people especially the adult as well
as other population. A study of 19 respondents aged more than 60 years old in
Malaysia find that the learning content of that group are focusing on health,
religious and theology (Ketuhanan), family and society (Mazanah and Merriam,
2000). Both of them also find that no guidelines about things to learn among
adult since adult learning policy has not been fully formulated in Malaysia
Picture
Adult
Education in Malaysia
Not limited to formal
learning institution. Open to all agency/ sector which have adult as a client/
learner. 3 main sectors practicing concept of adult education (Government/
Public, Private, and NGOs) (Formal learning institution, workplace,
society/community. Livingstone (2000), Pratices on this 3 sectors are
developing along with the rapid multi-media development in HRD
Government/
Public sector
Agriculture Technology
Transfer (Agriculture extension)
Training in Service
(Teamwork)
Transformational
Program (Strategic Planning)
Program Mesra Rakyat
(Seminar pembangunan setempat)
Self-Development
Program(Distance Education)
Private
sector
Human resource
Development Program (Capacity Development Program)
CSR Program – Corporate
Social Responsibility (Humanity Program)
Technical Training
Program (Environmental Awareness Program)
NGO
sector
Professional
Association (Medical)
Volunteer Association
(Youth Association)
However, in practical,
government conduct the program which focus on formal learning. Informal
learning was less focus until was assumed as not important and not significant.
This phenomenon is not strange in Malaysia because it also happen in other
countries.
Adult
Development & Growth
Stages
of the lifespan
The lifespan is the
period of time between fertilization and death. It can be divided up into a
series of stages
These stages are
determined by a combination of biological age, social age and physical age
Lifespan stage vs approximately
age range
Prenatal : Fertilisation to birth
Infancy : Birth – 2 years
Early childhood : 2 to 6 years
Late Childhood : 6 to 14 years
Youths :14 to 22 years
Early adulthood : 22 to 40 years
Middle adulthood : 40 to 65 years
Late adulthood : 65 years and above (to death)
Area
of life span development:
Psychologist has
identified 4 types of human development:
Physical and Biological Development
Social Development
Mental/ Cognitive/
Intellectual Development
Emotional
Development
Physical and Biological
Development:
Refers to physical and
biological changes in the body and its various systems include physical growth,
changes in strength and speed and brain development over the life span. PBD
includes growth which is changes in the size and structure of cells such as
increases in heights and weight and therefore the lengthening of bones, he
cutting of teeth, changes in body proportions and increases in muscles and
tissues. PBD also includes motor skills which are changes in the ability to use
and control muscles that enable us to undertake a range of activities. In our
body we tend to have large muscle groups and smaller muscle groups. The
development of motor skills is dependent upon the maturation of the central
nervous system. Control of the larger muscle groups is called GROSS MOTOR
SKILLS (Running – longer strides, Jumping – vertical jumping ability, Throwing
– throwing accuracy and distance and Balance – standing on one foot). Control
of the smaller muscle of the body such as those in the fingers and toes are
known as FINE MOTOR SKILLS: i.e: Threading beads and tying shoelaces
Social
Development (SD)
Involves changes in an individual‘s
relationships with other people and their skills in interacting with others. SD
relies on the interaction with others and refers to the development of
knowledge and skills, attitudes, values and behaviors necessary for the
appropriates interaction and relationships with other people. SD occurs as a
result of socialization. We learn primarily from our family but other
influences include (Peers, indergarten, Child care, School, Sporting clubs,
Religious Institution, Workplace and Media)
Mental
Development
Involves changes in an
individual’s mental ability. Intellectual development refers to changes in our
ability to think and reason and includes the establishment of language skills,
understanding the basic concepts for daily living such as numbers, time and
space and our ability to solve problems. Primarily involves an increase in
knowledge and sharpening of skills. Research shows that negative influence
(drugs, violence, stress, poverty) can have a long term effect on the brain
Emotional
Development
Involves changes in how
and individual experiences different feelings and how these feelings are
expressed. Refers to the changes that occur in our ability to control and
understand our own moods and feelings and the expression of these emotions. As
well as understanding the emotions of others. It includes feeling we develop
about ourselves and includes aspects such as confidence, self esteem and self
concept
EARLY
ADULTHOOD (22- 40 years)
PBD development is
basically complete
Most productive life
stage
This is the prime
childbearing time and usually produces the healthiest babies
Both male and female
sexual development is at its peak
Early
Adulthood - Mental Development
Many young adults
pursue additional education to establish and progress in their chosen career;
frequently, formal education continues for many years
Young adults deal with
independence, making career choices, establishing a lifestyle, selecting a
marital partner and starting a family
Early
Adulthood - Emotional Development
In this stage, adult
usually involves preserving the stability established during previous stages
Young adults are
subjected to many emotional stresses related to career, marriage, family, etc.
They find satisfaction
in their achievements, take responsibility for their actions, and learn to
accept criticism and profit from mistakes
Social development
frequently involves moving away from the peer group, and young adults instead
associate with others who have similar ambitions and interest, regardless of
age
Young adult often
become involved with a mate and form a family. Erikson identified this stages
as Intimacy vs. Isolation (Young adults struggle to form and establish close
relationship, cooperation, self-actualisation while maintaining self-identity.
If these are not achieved there is a tendency towards alienation. In today’s
society, young adults do not necessarily adopt traditional sex roles, and
frequently adopt nontraditional roles. E.g.: Males fill positions as nurses and
secretaries, where females enter administrative or construction positions.
MIDDLE ADULTHOOD (40 –
65 years)
Middle
Adulthood - Physical Development
The hair begins to gray
and thin out
Skin begins to wrinkle
Muscle tone tend to
decrease
Hearing loss starts
Visual acuity declines
Weight gain occurs
Females experience
menopause
Males also experience a
slowing of hormone production
Middle
Adulthood – Mental Development
Mental ability can
continue to increase for those who seek out formal education. This is a period
when individuals have obtained an understanding of life and have learned to
cope with any different stresses, which allows them to be more confident in
decision-making and excellent at analyzing situations.
Middle Adulthood –
Emotional Development
This stage can be a
period of contentment and satisfaction, or it can be a time of crisis. Job
stability, financial success, the end of child rearing, and good health due to
disease prevention can all contribute to emotional satisfaction. Stress created
by job loss, fear of aging , loss of youth and vitality, illness, marital
problems, or problems with children or aging parents, can contribute to
emotional feelings of depression, insecurity, anxiety and even anger.
Middle
Adulthood – Social Development
Family relationships
may see a decline as children begin lives of their own and parents die. Relationship
between husband and wife can become stronger as they have time together and
opportunity to enjoy success.Divorce rates are also high in this stage because
many couples have remained together “for the children’s sake” and separate
after the children leave home. Generativity vs. Stagnation (In middle age,
people discover a sense of contributing to the world, usually through family
and work, or they may feel a lack of purpose. Focus on career success. Failure
in the process will lead them to self-absorption). Empty nest syndrome: the
feelings of sadness when children leave home and enter adulthood
LATE
ADULTHOOD (65 – beyond). Late Adulthood - Physical Development
Physical development is
on the decline; all body systems are usually affected. The skin becomes dry,
wrinkled and thinner; brown and yellow spots (age spots) begin to appear. The
hair becomes thin an frequently loses its luster and shine. Bones become more
brittle ad porous and are more likely to fracture or break. Muscle lose tone and
strength which can lead to fatigue and poor coordination. Memory loss can
occur, and reasoning and reasoning ability can diminish. The heart is less
efficient, and circulation decreases. The kidney and bladder are less efficient.
Breathing capacity decreases and can cause shortness of breath.
***it is important to
note that these changes occur slowly over a long period of time
Late
Adulthood - Mental Development
Mental abilities vary among
individuals – some 90 –year-olds remain alert and well-oriented, while other
elderly individuals show decrease mental capacity at much earlier ages. Short-term
memory is usually the first to decline. Diseases such as Alzheimer’s can lead
to irreversible memory loss, deterioration of intellectual functions, speech
and gait disturbances and disorientation
Late
Adulthood – Emotional Development
Emotional stability
also varies among individuals in this group – some elderly people cope with
stress presented by aging and remain happy and able to enjoy life, where others
become lonely, frustrated, withdrawn and depressed. Emotional adjustment is
necessary throughout this stage. Retirement can lead to a loss of self-esteem,
especially if work is associated strongly with self-identity; it also leads to
less contact with co-worker and a more limited circle of friends usually occurs.
Many elderly individuals engage in other activities and continue to make new
social contacts, while others limit their social relationships. Integrity vs.
Despair (Reflecting on his or her life, an older adult may feel a sense of
satisfaction or failure. At this level, adults who see themselves as failures will
have the fear of facing death. Death of a spouse and friends, and moving to a
new environment can also cause changes in social relationships. Development of
new social contacts is important at this time.
Psychological
Characteristics of Adults
Highly motivated
Relatively rigid
Generally slow in
response
May falter when being
pushed
Self-concept is
unpredictable
Able to make dependable
decision
Responsible and will
follow through
Learning is enhanced if
they are psychologically positive of the subject matter
Capable of giving
inputs toward the realisation of the goals associated with a learning program
they are undertaking
They are ready to be
active participant in the programming process that will benefit them or solve
their problems.
Sociological
Characteristics of Adults
Directly associated
with their socio-culture and values. Other demographics factors that may
influence their sociological characteristics include:
1. Position in the
society 6. Marital
status
2. Educational
attainment 7. Family size
3. Belief
8. Lifestyles
4. Traditions
5. Perception
Adults
as learners
Rogers (2000) provides
six characteristics of adult learners:
In the process of
adapting to changes in life. Bring along their life experiences in the learning
setting. Having problems to be resolved. Having personal perception and values.
Having multiple expectations. Having established individual concept related to
learning.
Categories
of Adult Learners
The main reason of
participating in adult learning program is to gather knowledge and skills
related to their needs. In relation to this, adult learners may be categorized
into three:
1. Those who are
following available structured learning program
2. Those who are
following learning program when the needs arise
3. Those who are
actively involved in planning their learning program
Characteristics
of Adult Learners
Learning needs are
different from kids. Relatively they are difficult to accept change. They are
able to direct themselves to pursue learning. They bring with them vast
experiences. They have the readiness to learn and are highly motivated to
pursue learning that will solve their problems.
Havinghurst
Developmental Task Model
Robert J. Havinghurst
proposed a bio psychosocial model of development, wherein the developmental
tasks at each stage are influenced by an individual’s biology (physiological
maturation and genetic makeup), his psychology (personal values and goals), as
well as his sociology (specific culture to which the individual belongs). Havinghurst
pointed out the importance of sensitive periods which he considered to be the
ideal teachable moments during which an individual demonstrates maturation at a
level that is most conducive to learning and successfully performing the
developmental tasks
Teachable
moment
Is an unplanned
opportunity that arises in the classroom where a teacher has an ideal chance to
offer insight to his or her students? A teachable moment is not something you
can plan for; rather, it is a fleeting opportunity that must be sensed and
seized by the teacher. In education, is
the time at which learning a particular topic or idea becomes possible or
easiest.A time that is favorable for teaching something? For example: My
interaction with the nurse during the teachable moment is intended to support
the nurse in the development of a sense of knowing this particular patient,
this type of patient and this practice environment through this created
co-created, reflection-in-action activity.
Psychosocial
Development Stage
Psychosocial
Development Stage (Erik Erikson, 1965) recognizes that:
Human physical strength
will reach its peak during early adulthood (20-30 years old)
The physical strength
will gradually decrease during middle adulthood and subsequently during late
adulthood (from 40 to 60 years old)
Human stamina decreases
much faster as they grow older
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Stages of development
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Developmental tasks
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Early Adulthood (18 – 35 years)
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Middle Age
(36 – 60 years)
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Later Maturity (over 60 years)
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Fluid and Crystalized
Intelligent
What
is Fluid Intelligence?
Refers to the ability
to think quickly and abstractly. Fluid intelligence involves being able to
think and reason abstractly and solve problems. This ability is considered
independent of learning, experience, and education. Examples of the use of
fluid intelligence include solving puzzles and coming up with problem-solving
strategies. Tends to decline during late adulthood.
What
Is Crystallized Intelligence?
Refers to accumulated
wisdom, knowledge, expertise and vocabulary. Crystallized intelligence involves
knowledge that comes from prior learning and past experiences. Situations that
require crystallized intelligence include reading comprehension and vocabulary
exams. This type of intelligence is based upon facts and rooted in experiences.
As we age and accumulate new knowledge and understanding, crystallized intelligence
becomes stronger. This type of intelligence tends to increase with age.
Fluid
vs. Crystallized Intelligence
Fluid and crystallized
intelligence are complementary in that some learning tasks can be mastered
mainly by exercising either fluid or crystallized intelligence."Both types
of intelligence are equally important in everyday life. For example, when
taking a final exam, you might need to rely on fluid intelligence to memorized
fact, figure and formulas, while you must also employ crystallized intelligence
to understand the question needs.
Fluid
vs. Crystallized Intelligence
Fluid intelligence
along with its counterpart, crystallized intelligence, are both factors of what
Cattell referred to as general intelligence. While fluid intelligence involves
our current ability to reason and deal with complex information around us,
crystallized intelligence involves learning, knowledge and skills that are
acquired over a lifetime. It is important to note that despite the name,
crystallized intelligence is not a form of fluid intelligence that has become
'crystallized.' Instead, the two factors of general intelligence are
considered separate and distinct
.
Fluid
and Crystallized Intelligence Throughout Life
Fluid and crystallized
intelligence tend to change throughout life, with certain mental abilities
peaking at different points. Fluid intelligence has long been believed to peak
quite early in life, but some new research suggests that some aspects of fluid
intelligence may peak as late as age 40. Crystallized intelligence does tend to
peak later in life, hitting its apex around age 60 or 70. Some things to
remember about fluid and crystallized intelligence:
Both types of
intelligence increase throughout childhood and adolescence. Fluid intelligence
peaks in adolescence and begins to decline progressively beginning around age
30 or 40. Crystallized intelligence continues to grow throughout adulthood. Recent
research also suggests that brain training might play a role in improving
certain aspects of fluid intelligence.
Learning
theories
Behaviorist
John B. Watson (Little
Albert) (1878 – 1958)
Edward Thorndike (Law
of Effect, Law of Exercise, Law of Readiness) (1874 – 1949)
Edward C. Tolman (Purposive
behaviorism) (1886 – 1959)
Ivan Pavlov (classical
conditioning) (1849 – 1936)
B.F. Skinner (operant
conditioning) (1904 – 1990)
Behaviorist
orientation
Observable behavior
rather than internal thought process is the focus of the study. In particular
(learning is manifested by a change in behavior). The environment shapes
behavior; what one learns is determined by the elements in the environment, not
by the individual learner. The principles of contiguity (how close in time two
events must be for a bond to be formed) and reinforcement (any means of
increasing the likelihood that an event will be repeated) are central to
explaining the learning process.
Pavlov’s
Classical conditioning
Skinner (1938, 1953):
reinforcement is essential to understanding operant conditioning. If behavior
is reinforce or rewarded, the response is more likely to occur again under
similar conditions. Behavior that is not reinforced is likely to become less
frequent and may even disappear. (Behavior Modification)
Thorndike:
Law of Effect (learners
will acquire and remember responses that lead to satisfying aftereffects);
Law of Exercise (the
repetition of a meaningful connection results in substantial learning);
Law of Readiness (if
the organism is ready for the connection, learning is enhanced, and if it is
not, learning is inhibited) (Ormrod, 1995)
Application
behaviorist in learning
Behaviorism is the
philosophy that most underlies adult career and technical education and HRD. The
emphasis in vocational education is on identifying the skills needed to perform
in an occupation, teaching those skills and requiring a certain standard of
performance of those skills. HRD is most associated with training to enhance
on-the-job performance in the workplace. Performance improvement, competency
based instruction, and accountability are all part of this behavioral
orientation to HRD. HRD professionals who rely on behaviorism and cognitivism
emphasizes rewards, the stimuli that learners receive from the environment, the
systematic observation of behavior, and relating new information to previous
learning. (Sleezer, Conti and Nolan, 2003). It should be noted that there are
numerous educators and HRD and technical education professionals who do not
ascribe to such a behaviorist orientation. Nevertheless, the behavioral
orientation to learning has had a profound effect on our educational system. It
has also been challenged by theorist from two radically different perspectives:
humanism and cognitivism
Humanist
Abraham Maslow
(1908-1970)
Carl Rogers (1902-1987)
Humanist
orientation
Learning from the
perspective of the human potential for growth. Human beings can control their
own destiny; people are inherently good and will strive for a better world;
people are free to act, and behavior is the consequence of human choice; people
possess unlimited potential for growth and development (Roger, 1983; Maslow,
1970). Humanism emphasizes that perceptions are centered in experience, and it
also emphasizes the freedom and responsibility to become what one is capable of
becoming. These tenets underlie much of adult learning theory that stresses the
self-directedness of adults and value of experience in the learning process
Maslow’s
Hierarchy of Needs
Maslow (1970): lowest
level of his triangle hierarchy must be attended to before one can deal with
higher level of needs. The final need can be seen in a person’s desire to
become all that he or she is capable of becoming. The motivation to learn is
intrinsic; it emanates from the learner. For Maslow self-actualization is goal
of learning, and educators should strive to bring this about.
Rogers (1983): He
believes that each person experiences the world differently and knows his or
her experience best. Sees as a similar process in both therapy and education.
In fact, his “client centered therapy”*** is often equated with
student-centered learning.
***focus on the role of
the client rather than the therapist as key to healing process
Application
humanism in learning
Knowles theory of
andragogy, with its assumptions about the adult learner, and much of the
research and writing on self-directed learning are grounded in humanistic
learning theories. The focus of learning is on the individual and
self-development, with learners expected to assume primary responsibility for
their own learning. (SDL) The process of learning, which is centered on learner
need, is seen as more important than the content; therefore when educators are
involved in the learning process, their most important role is to act as a
facilitators, or guides.
Cognitivist
Scholars
Christian von Ehrenfels
(Gestalt) German Psychologist
Jean Piaget (1896 –
1980) Swiss Clinical Psychologist
David Paul Ausubel
(1918 - 2008)
Robert Mills Gagne
(1916 – 2002)
Jerome Seymour Bruner
(1915 – 2016)
Cognitivist
orientation
Key assumptions
underlie:
1) The memory system is
an active organized processor information
2) The prior knowledge
plays an important role in learning
Perception, insight and
meaning are key concepts in cognitivism for Gestalt learning theorist. The
human mind is not simply a passive exchange terminal system where the stimuli
arrive and appropriate response leaves. Rather, the thinking person interprets
sensations and gives meaning to the events that impinge upon his consciousness.
Gestalt:
proposed looking at the whole rather than its parts, at patterns rather than
isolated events.
Piaget:
one’s internal cognitive structure changes partly as a result of maturational
changes in the nervous system and partly as a results of the organism’s
interacting with the environment and being exposed to an increasing number of
experiences.
Cognitive
learning theory encompasses a number of perspectives,
all of which take as their starting point the mental processes involve in
learning (Wilson & Keil, 1999)
Ausubel
(1967): Learning is meaningful only when it can be related
to the concepts that already exist in a person’s cognitive structure. Rote
learning, in contrast, does not become linked to a person’s cognitive structure
and hence is easily forgotten. He emphasizes the importance of the learner’s
cognitive structure in new learning.He also suggests the use of “advance
organizers” to prepare a person for a new learning.
Assimilation
theory.
Bruner views contrasted
with Ausubel’s, emphasizes learning through discovery. Discovery is “in its
essence a matter of rearranging or transforming evidence in such a way that one
is enabled to go beyond the evidence” and as a results, reconstruct additional
new insights. Bruner’s instructional theory is based on a theory about the act
of learning that involves “three almost simultaneous process:
Acquisition of new
information …;
Transformation, or the
process of manipulating knowledge to make it fit new tasks; and Evaluation, or
checking whether the way we have manipulated information is adequate to the
task. Gagne, Briggs & Wager (1992): linking instruction to the acquisition
and processing of knowledge. They contend that there are 8 different types of
knowledges:
1. Signal learning
2. Stimulus-response
3. Motor training
4. Verbal association
5. Discrimination
learning
6. Concept learning
7. Rule learning
8. Problem solving
*each with appropriate
instructional procedures.
In summary, cognitively
oriented explanations of learning encompass a wide range of topics with a common
focus on internal mental processes that are under the learner’s control. Essential
components of learning are the organization of the information to be learned,
the learner’s prior knowledge, and the processes involved in perceiving,
comprehending, and storing information (Gredler, 1997, p.143)
Social-cognitive
Albert Bandura (1925)
(91 y.o)
Jullian Rotter (1916 –
2014)
Highlight the idea that
much human learning occurs in a social environment. By observing others, human
acquire knowledge, rules, skills, strategies, beliefs and attitudes. Individuals
also learn about the usefulness and appropriateness of behaviors by observing
models and the consequences of modeled behaviors, and they act in accordance
with their beliefs concerning the expected outcomes of actions. Bandura (1960):
Bobo-doll study. Observational learning is characterized by the concept of
self-regulation. Persons can regulate their own behavior to some extent by
visualizing self-generated consequences. Observational learning influenced by 4
processes of attention, retention of memory, behavioral rehearsal and
motivation. Conceptual representations often comprise both images and verbal
symbols. Bandura’s theory has particular relevance to adult learning in that it
accounts for both the learner and environment in which he or she operates. Another
connection to adult learning is the importance of context and the learner’s
interaction with the environment to explain behavior. Bandura has advanced a
model of “triadic reciprocality” in which behavior, cognitive and other
personal factors and environmental events all operate as interacting
determinants of each other.
Constructivist
Constructivist
orientation
Basic assumption:
Learning is a process of constructing meaning; it is how people make sense of
their experience. Constructivist differ as to the nature of reality, the role
of experience, what knowledge is of interest, and whether the process of meaning-making
is primarily individual or social. All forms of constructivism understand
learning to be an active rather than passive endeavor. Consequently, learning
occurs through dialogue, collaborative learning, and cooperative learning. One
learn through engaging, incorporating, and critically exploring the views of
others, and new possibilities of interpretations are opened through the
interaction. Aspect of constructivism can be found in self-directed learning,
transformational learning, experiential learning, situated cognition and
reflective practice.
Factor
contributing adult learning and strategy to facilitate adult learn
Education
level of adult learner
Adult Basic Literacy
(reading, writing, basic math skills, ESL, GED). Post-Literacy (illiterate or
neo-illiterate adult, CE program). Alternative Primary Education (any set of
educational models or programs existing outside formal school system). Alternative
Secondary Education (different learning process, student centered, instruction
is modified for the student’s interest and needs. A distance education school
could be very traditional).
Typology
of adult learner (Houle, 1961)
1. Adults who are
goal-oriented-Goal oriented learners are out to accomplish some identifiable
objective, such as a degree or certification.
2. Adults who are
activity-oriented-Activity oriented learners are those who participate in
learning for another reason unrelated to knowledge acquisition: to socialize,
to find a spouse, to escape an unpleasant home life
3. Adults who are
learning-oriented-Learning oriented learners are those who seek knowledge for
its own sake
Factor
contributing adult learning
Solving problem
Physical,
psycho-social, mental condition
Escapism/ time off
(from home/ work)
Personal Achievement/
Advancement
Social relationship/
network
Career development
Economic Factors (adult
education learners families were well provided for while they were enrolled in
adult classes)
Family support
Employer’s demand
(external expectation)
Cognitive interest
Requirement for
competence or licensing
Promotion
Need to maintain old
skills and learn new ones
A need to adapt job
changes
A need to adapt new
systems
Factor
contributing adult learning (Centre-related factors)
State of facilities
Location of AE center
Tuition fees
Teaching/ learning
resources’ availability and condition
Qualifications of the
adult education teachers
Courses offered in
adult education centers geared to providing income generating skills to
learners
The type of curriculum
used in adult education centers
Adult learner’s
priorities (whether adult education learners give more priority to their work
than education)
Barriers/
deterrents
Fear of being too old
and a lack of confidence in their academic abilities.
Language problem - ELL
(ESL student)
Unsupportive spouse/
family
Social responsibilities
Lack of time
Lack of money
Lack of interest
Lack of information
about opportunities to learn
Scheduling problem
(working hours and learning hours)
Red tape
(pre-requisite, working experience, etc)
AE location
Problems with childcare
and transportation
Strategy
to help adult learn
Weekend and evening
classes
On-line course work
The use of adjunct
faculty working in their field
Experiential pedagogy
(grounding teaching in students’ learning)
Programs that have
direct links to business and industry for applied research and practice
The presence of day
care centers on campus. Giving credit for life
experiences are all examples of how higher education has been influenced by the
adult learner . (Kasworm, 2002; Rhodes, 2001).
Fulfill needs - To meet
the needs of the students, systematic assessment of expectations and
satisfaction with academic and institutional services needs to be conducted. If
universities continue to operate blindly, based upon what is convenient or
based upon how they’ve always done business, or if they choose not to
understand the priorities of these adult learners, they will ultimately lose
them. This population must be viewed in terms of vocation and or a change of
career, so academic work must be related to experience, and outside workplace
(Sandler, 2000; Samuels, 2004).
Strategy
to facilitate adult learn
Identifying learning
objectives must be based upon five assumptions of adult learning (ANDRAGOGY):
Maturity moves one to
more self direction. Involved them into planning and evaluation for each
instruction. experience is a rich resource for learning. Learning readiness is
closely related to the developmental tasks of the adult’s social role. Adults
are more problem centered than subject centered in their learning. Adults are
motivated by internal rather than external factors (positive and negative
reinforcement). (Knowles, 1968; Merriam & Caffarella, 1999; Gillen 2005).
Andragogy…
While designing
learning activity, these assumption should be take into consideration:
Adults have the need to
know why they are learning something. Adults learn through doing. Adults are
problem-solvers. Adults learn best when the subject is of immediate use. According
to Knowles (1984) an example used to apply the principles to personal computer
training:
1. Explain the reasons
specific things are being taught (functions, commands)
2. Task oriented
instead of memorizing. Tasks should be common tasks. Take diversity into play.
3. Acknowledge
different learning levels, needs and experience
4. Since adults are
SDL, allow adults to learn on their own and from their mistakes
Strategy
developing curriculum (Tyler)
Continuity
The vertical repetition
of major curriculum elements in different courses over time (also known as
vertical organization or articulation). It is important to identify the themes
or skills that need to run through a program and to map how they will be addressed
at each level (the progression is continuum).
Sequence
The ordering of
learning experiences so that learners build on previous experiences and move to
broader, deeper and more complex understandings and applications. Commons ways
of sequencing content within courses include simple to complex, wholes to parts
(or parts to whole), prerequisites abilities and chronological.
Integration
The horizontal
relationship among major curriculum components at any given point in time (also
known as horizontal organization). Integration fosters reinforcement of key
learning and is needed to promote application of learning across course
boundaries. Learning experiences need to be coherent and related to one
another.
Strategy
to supervise and assess learning
Perform the formative
assessment and continuous supervision as well as giving regular feedback to
improvise the learning progress. Conduct mutual assessment with the
stakeholders by employing CIPP model – Context, Input, Process and Product
(Stufflebeam, 1983) or 4 level of evaluations (Kirkpatrick 2005, 2015)
Malcolm Knowles was
perhaps the most famous researcher in this area. In his groundbreaking work in
the 1950’s and 60’s, Knowles determined characteristics of adult learner :
1. Self directed
2. Experience
3. Goal oriented
4. Relevant
5. Practical
6. Respect
Knowledge retain
Knowles research
further showed that adults remember:
• 20% of what they hear
• 40% off what they see and hear
• 80% that they do
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